Table 1 The roles of exosomes within TME in HCC development and progression

14-3-3ζ

Increased

Impair antitumor function

Inhibit the antitumor functions of TILs and the vitality and proliferation of peripheral blood CD3+ T cells

MICA*008

Increased

Impair cytotoxic function

Induce NKG2D downregulation on NK cell surface

HCC antigens

Increased

Promote immune responses

Activate immune response mediated by DCs

Not mentioned

Unvaried

Regulate immunosuppression

Alter the immunosuppressive status through STAT3 pathway in macrophages

miR-490

Increased

Inhibit metastasis

Mast cells are stimulated by HCV-E2 and secrete exosomes to inhibit the ERK1/2 pathway

miR-142, miR-223

Increased

Inhibit proliferation

Decrease reporter protein expression and endogenously express stathmin-1 and insulin-like growth factor-1 receptor

linc-RoR

Increased

Regulate energy metabolism

Activate microRNA-145/HIF-1α/PDK1 pathway and enhance the glycolysis process

Induce chemoresistance

Activate TGF-β signaling and promote colony formation of CD133+ T-IC

miRNA

Increased

Promote migration and invasion

Induce TGF-β and TAK1 expression

miR-155

Increased

Promote formation and development

Promote inflammation and positively correlate with IL-6 or IL-8 levels

miR-1247-3p

Increased

Promote metastasis

Target B4GALT3 and activate β1-integrin–NF-κB pathway

miR-30a

Decreased

Promote proliferation and metastasis

Mediate Beclin 1 and Atg5-dependent autophagy

miR-320a

Decreased

Promote metastasis

Target PBX3 and MAPK pathway, induce EMT, and upregulate CDK2 and MMP-2 expression

miR-122

Decreased

Promote proliferation

IGF1 prevents intercellular exosomal transfer of miR-122

Increase

Induce chemosensitivity

Induce chemosensitivity (5-FU and sorafenib)

miR-9-3p

Decreased

Promote proliferation

Regulate HBGF-5 and ERK1/2 expression

VASN

Increased

Promote HUVECs cells migration

Not mentioned

RNAs, miRNAs

Polytropic

Associated with the degree of lumen formation

Not mentioned

miR-210-3p

Increased

Increase angiogenesis

Inhibit the expression of SMAD4 and STAT6 in ECs

lincRNA H19

Increased

Increase angiogenesis

Increase VEGF release and the production of VEGF-R1

miR-221

Increased

Increase angiogenesis

Activate SAND/NF-κB pathway and upregulate CXCL16 expression

miR-21

Increased

Increase angiogenesis

Activate the STAT3/VEGF pathway

Not mentioned

Not mentioned

Induce chemoresistance

Activate HGF/c-Met/Akt pathways and restrain apoptosis

Fibronectin1 COL2A1, FGG

Increased

Promote metastasis

Induce either partial or total EMT

RNAs, proteins

Polytropic

Promote migration and invasion

Activate PI3K/AKT and MAPK pathways in MIHA and increase MMP-2 and MMP-9 secretion

miR-103

Increased

Promote metastasis

Inhibit the expression of VE-Cad, p120, and ZO-1

AFP

Increased

Promote immune responses; Inhibit proliferation

Enhance CD8+ T lymphocytes response, improve IFN-γ and IL-2 expression

HSP

Increased

Promote immune responses

Improve tumor immunogenicity and induce NK cell responses

PD-L1

Increased

Promote proliferation

Suppress T cell activation in the draining lymph node

miR-26a

Increased

Inhibit proliferation

Bind to HepG2 cells via the scavenger receptor class B type 1-Apo-A1 complex

Doxorubicin

Increased

Inhibit proliferation

imDCs were engineered to express Lamp2b fused with v integrin-specific iRGD peptide

lincRNA-VLDLR

Increased

Induce chemoresistance

Increase ABCG2 expression and restrain apoptosis