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Table 5 Small-molecule compounds targeting autophagy to inhibit CSCs

From: Emerging agents that target signaling pathways in cancer stem cells

Name

Target

Mechanism

Type of cancer

Phase

NCT number (starting time)/publication date

Assessment

CQ

Autophagy

Targets CSCs by inhibiting autophagy

Breast cancer

Phase II

NCT02333890 (January 7, 2015)

Induces cardiotoxicity [117]

Autophagy

Inhibits the stemness marker of CD133+ and decreases the CSC proportions

NSCLC

Preclinical

December, 2019

HCQ

Autophagy

Eliminates LSCs

Leukemia

Phase II

NCT00771056 (October 10, 2008)

Induces retinal toxicity [118]

Pantoprazole

Autophagy

Inhibits autophagy

Prostate cancer

Phase II

NCT01748500(December 12, 2012)

DLT, grade 3 to 4 [119]

EMT/β-catenin

Inhibits the chemoresistance of gastric cancer stem cells

Gastric cancer

Preclinical

December, 2016

3-MA

Autophagy

Reduces the resistance of mesenchymal stem cells

Myeloma

Preclinical

September, 2017

No significant side effect [120]

Rott

Autophagy

Induces autophagy leading to breast CSC death

Breast cancer

Preclinical

December 23, 2013

Without toxicity in the mice [121]