Fig. 1

Solamargine induces apoptosis and autophagy by inhibiting LIF/miR-192-5p/CYR61/Akt axis in hepatocellular carcinoma. a Representative results of Annexin V-FITC/PI staining of HCC cells treated with SM for 24 h. b Autophagy was measured by transmission electron microscopy after treatment with SM in HCC cells. c The representative images of isolated tumors derived from PDX mice (n = 8). d The samples of human HCC patients were collected and the expression of LIF in adjacent or normal tissues was detected by western blot assay. e The expression of LIF in HCC cells was examined by western blot following treatment with SM. f The representative images of livers derived from orthotopic HCC mice after vehicle and SM treatment (n = 10). g Colony formation assay of HCC cells treated with SM combined with ectopic LIF or SM alone. h The expressions of several key cell apoptosis and autophagy signal regulators were examined by western blotting after treatment with SM combined with BA1 or SM alone. i Heatmap of differentially expressed miRNA with significant differences expression in HepG2 cells treated with or without SM (6 µM). j HepG2 and HuH-7 cells were treated with SM with or without miR-192-5p inhibitor, and the inhibition of growth was assessed. k HCC cells were treated with SM with or without miR-192-5p inhibitor, and the protein expressions of several key cell apoptosis and autophagy were examined by western blotting. l The protein expressions of CYR61, p-Akt and total Akt in HCC cells were detected by western blotting. m Immunohistochemistry revealed the expressions of p-Akt and CYR61 in tumor tissues of PDX mice. n–o HCC cells were treated with SM alone or transfected with miR-192-5p inhibitor (right) or LIF- plasmid (left), the expressions of p-Akt, total Akt and CYR61 were detected by western blotting. Actin was used as a loading control. Data were presented as means ± SD, ns means no significance, *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001; ^#p < 0.05, ^##p < 0.01, ^###p < 0.001