Fig. 2
From: TGF-β signaling in the tumor metabolic microenvironment and targeted therapies
Canonical and non-canonical TGF-β signaling pathway. LLC are produced by various cell types, and TGF-β ligands can be activated and release from the LLC. TGF-β signaling initiates when the TGF-β ligands (TGF-β1,2,3) bind to TGF-βRII. Then, TGF-βRI is phosphorylated and activates various intracellular signaling cascades. These intracellular pathways of canonical SMAD2/3 pathway and non-canonical TGF-β pathways including MAP kinases (p38), Hippo, PI3K/AKT, and AMPK signaling can subsequently regulate metabolic activities. LLC: large latent complex