Fig. 1

The functions of exosomes within TME in facilitating the development and progression of HCC. Exosome-mediated immune regulation is involved in modulation of the TME with immunosuppressive and tolerogenic characteristics. Multiple processes are involved in HCC, including tumor survival, growth, angiogenesis, invasion, and metastasis. The specific mechanisms involved in molding the TME for HCC include energy metabolism regulation, stimulatory signal supply, and inhibitory signal circumvention. In addition, exosomes induce angiogenesis by changing the biological characteristics of endothelial cells and directly regulating proangiogenic and propermeability factors. Additionally, exosomes may lead to HCC metastatic invasion by EMT, ECM degradation, and vascular leakage. Finally, the association between exosomes and drug resistance suggests the involvement of complex mechanisms of chemoresistance in the TME