Fig. 3

Representative spatial architecture of immune cells in the tumor microenvironment. a Primary tumors are divided into the tumor core, tumor stroma, and invasion margin based on tumor compartments. b Special immune structures, such as perivascular niches and tertiary lymphoid structures (TLSs), are also involved in the construction of architectures. Moreover, computational technology identified cellular neighborhoods (CNs) as regions with a characteristic local stoichiometry of cellular components. CXCL4, C-X-C chemokine ligand type 4; CCL2, C–C chemokine ligand type 2; CX3CL1, C-X3-C motif ligand 1; TGF-β, transforming growth factor-β; IFN, interferon; IL-2, interleukin 2; ADCC, antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity; MDSC, myeloid-derived suppressor cell