Table 1 Molecular alterations and their potential implications on therapeutic targeting

Tumour suppression

PRDM1, FOXO3, HACE1 (7), CAV1, CAV2, DLC1 (15)

Specific gene targeting

Oncogenesis

NOTCH3, KRAS, BRAF, PRKD1, MAP3K5, PTPRK (16, 20, 21); DDX3X (16, 21)

Specific gene targeting

Multi-function pathway activation

PRKCQ, TNFRSF21, CUL1, FSD1, SGK1 (15, 16)

NF-κB, WNT signalling

AKT3, IL6R, CCL2 (15, 16); JAK3, STAT3, STAT5B (16, 20, 21)

JAK/STAT signalling

Derangement of tissue proliferation

CCND3 (15); S100A16, LAMB1, LAMC1, COL1A2, CTSB (15, 16)

Cell cycle

MET, S100A13 (15)

Angiogenesis

Epigenetic dysregulation

TP73, RARB, P15, P16, PRDM1, ATG5, AIM1, BCL2L11, DAPK1, TET2, PTPN6, SOCS6, PTPRK, ASNS (25, 26); KMT2D, KMT2C, BCOR, EP300, HDAC9, ARID1A, ASXL3 (16, 20,21); EZH2 (17)

Epigenetic modifiers

Immune escape

PD-L1, PD-L2 (15, 16)

Immune checkpoints