Fig. 6
From: TGF-β signaling in the tumor metabolic microenvironment and targeted therapies
TGF-β-mediated host metabolism reprogramming in cancer. A Cancer is like a malignant organ that produces a large amount of TGF-β cytokine, then it circulates all over the host body including the liver, pancreas, and skeletal muscle. B In this way, TGF-β ligand resembles an endocrine factor and leads to hyperglycemia through 1. inducing β-cell apoptosis (verified) and 2. hepatic gluconeogenesis (hypothesized). 3. Cachexia is induced by TGF-β signaling by skeletal muscle proteolysis (verified). Pharmacologically or genetically inhibiting TGF-β signaling can attenuate these processes and reverse hyperglycemia and cachexia.