Table 2 Key inflammatory cytokines involved in cancer
Inflammatory cytokines | Major sources | Receptors | Key actions in cancer |
|---|---|---|---|
TNF-α | Macrophages, T lymphocytes, NK cells, neutrophils, mast cells, eosinophils and neurons | TNF-αR-1, TNF-αR-2 | •Antitumor actions by promoting tumor cell apoptosis, directing TAMs toward the M1 phenotype, and impairing tumor vasculature |
|  | •Promotes the EMT of tumor cells | ||
|  | •Immunosuppressive actions by promoting Tregs survival and functions | ||
TGF-β | Tumor cells, bone matrix | TGF-βRI, TGF-βRII | •Suppresses cancer at early stages of tumorigenesis through apoptosis induction and immune cell modulation |
|  | •Facilitates cancer progression at the later stage by promoting EMT, immune escape, angiogenesis, and suppressing apoptosis | ||
IFN-I | DCs, B cells, fibroblasts | IFNAR1, IFNAR2 | •Provides proinflammatory signals for tumor progression |
|  | •Facilitates immune evasion of tumor cells | ||
|  | •Promotes cancer stemness by triggering the epigenetic regulator | ||
|  | •Antitumor activities by negatively regulating premetastatic niche formation in the TME | ||
IL-1 | Tumor cells, MDSCs, TAMs, TANs, regulatory B (Breg) cells and Th17 | IL-1R | •Promotes tumor progression by recruiting MDSCs to inhibit T cell activation |
|  | •Promotes the production of angiogenic factors such as VEGF by tissue-resident endothelial cells | ||
|  | •Antitumor activities by inducing Th1-mediated immunity against cancer | ||
IL-6 | Tumor cells, T cells, B cells, monocytes, fibroblasts, keratinocytes, endothelial cells, mesangial cells, adipocytes | IL-6R | •Promotes tumor progression by inducing tumor cell proliferation, survival, EMT, angiogenesis, and chemoresistance |
|  | •Suppresses tumor cell senescence | ||
IL-10 | Tumor cells, leukocytes | IL-10R | •Contributes to immunosuppressive microenvironment via exhaustion of intratumoral CD8 + T cells |
|  | •Antitumor activities by promoting the infiltration and cytotoxic activity of CD8 + T cells |